![]() – Requires the injection of a large amount of cells – Cancer cells are widely available and easy to propagate Subcutaneous transplantation of cultured cancer cells into immunodeficient mice For each model, we discuss the contributions and limitations, as well as highlighting the opportunities for further research in the field ( Table 1). In this article, we review various mouse models of ECs, including xenograft models, orthotopic models, genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs), and chemical-induced or diet-induced mouse models ( Table 1). Mouse models of EC have provided important insights into the biology of the histological subtypes of EC. 13 Establishment of adequate mouse models of EC is necessary for exploring the mechanisms of esophageal tumorigenesis. 9, 10 Mouse models have permitted the modeling of human diseases and the testing of therapeutic approaches in a manner that is not possible in human subjects. The management of EC is well summarized in a few reviews. Locally advanced disease is generally treated with surgical approaches, whereas advanced (metastatic and disseminated) and/or recurrent disease is treated with chemotherapy and local therapies, such as radiotherapy or endoscopic palliation. 11, 12 Hence, the molecular mechanisms that promote esophageal carcinogenesis are not yet fully understood, especially for the early stages of pathogenesis of this disease. Most patients are diagnosed at a late stage due to lack of symptoms in the early stages of the disease. 9, 10 EC is considered a “silent” cancer. 9, 10 Better outcomes are correlated with early diagnosis, and poor outcomes are associated with the presence of metastases. The overall 5-year survival rate for patients with EC ranges from 15% to 25%. 5– 8ĮC is usually aggressive and invasive in nature, and thus, many patients have a poor prognosis. Although the etiologies of both types of ECs differ, the pathogenesis of both types has been linked to inflammation. 4 Obesity is another risk factor associated with EAC. The etiology includes gastroesophageal reflux disease, which can lead to complications such as Barrett’s Esophagus (BE), a condition defined by the replacement of the normal stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus by an intestinal-like columnar epithelium. Conversely, EAC occurs primarily in the distal esophagus. ![]() Major risk factors include alcohol consumption, tobacco use, and dietary factors (eg, vitamin deficiency, high nitrite levels, and/or nitrosamine consumption). 1, 3ĮSCC occurs in the middle and lower esophagus. EC can be divided into two major histological subtypes: esophageal squamous cell cancer (ESCC), which is the most common histological subtype in the world, and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), which represents the most rapidly increasing cancer in Western countries. 1, 2 Therefore, a better understanding of the pathogenesis of this deadly disease is urgently needed. In this review, we describe how different mouse models are used to study esophageal cancer.Įsophageal cancer (EC), regardless of its histological subtype, is one of the most common causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Moreover, a wide range of well-developed technologies for introducing genetic modifications into mice are currently available. Mice are excellent models for studying human cancers because they are similar to humans at the physiological and molecular levels and because they have a shorter gestation time and life cycle. Mouse models constitute valuable tools for modeling human cancers and for the preclinical testing of therapeutic strategies in a manner not possible in human subjects. Hence, understanding these mechanisms is crucial to improving outcomes for patients with esophageal cancer. The cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive the pathogenesis of esophageal cancer are still poorly understood. Despite recent advances in the development of surgical techniques in combination with the use of radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the prognosis for esophageal cancer remains poor. Esophageal cancer is the eighth leading cause of cancer and the sixth most common cause of cancer-related death worldwide.
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